A Theology of Land Management

From the Covalence Archives

 
A Theology of Land Management [1]

The Christian as Applied Ecologist
By Dr. K. Andrew West Printable version 


K. Andrew West holds BA and MA degrees in botany, and an interdisciplinary PhD in zoology from Southern Illinois University Carbondale, where he studied ecosystem management in state wildlife agencies. West is a 35-year veteran of conservation agencies, having worked in endangered species and natural areas protection, forest and ecosystem management, and wildlife conservation. After 30 years with the Illinois Dept. of Natural Resources, he briefly joined the U.S. Forest Service, and now works in southeast Missouri for the Missouri Dept. of Conservation. He, his wife, Veronica, and 3 grown children are members of Our Redeemer Lutheran Church in Marion IL. His interests include midwestern and southern flora and fauna, environmental justice, restoration ecology, environmental dispute resolution, and the relationship of faith traditions to caring for the Earth.


INTRODUCTION

When contemporary seekers and writers tackle the complex issue of how faith traditions relate to caring for the Earth, they look to diverse belief systems, ranging from Wicca to Christian process theology (Merchant 1995). Often their treatments contain detailed and titillating discussions and kindly remarks about goddess worship and animism, but only passing attention given to Christian spirituality. Most overlook the Christian (biblical) call in response to redemption and neglect to consider how wholeness is extended to all creation through God’s gift of salvation. I challenge those who do not recognize Christianity’s radical worldview: one that promotes healing and challenges its followers to be servants for all creation.

When contemporary seekers and writers tackle the complex issue of how faith traditions relate to caring for the Earth, they look to diverse belief systems, ranging from Wicca to Christian process theology (Merchant 1995). Often their treatments contain detailed and titillating discussions and kindly remarks about goddess worship and animism, but only passing attention given to Christian spirituality. Most overlook the Christian (biblical) call in response to redemption and neglect to consider how wholeness is extended to all creation through God’s gift of salvation. I challenge those who do not recognize Christianity’s radical worldview: one that promotes healing and challenges its followers to be servants for all creation.

The Judeo-Christian tradition has been blamed for misuse of the earth and exploitation of natural resources (White 1967). I propose that this accusation does not constitute an inherent shortcoming in Judaism or Christianity, but misunderstandings about what is in the canonical Bible. Our human nature can twist religious philosophies or misinterpret scripture to support a prevalent cultural mind-set (Smart 1977). In doing so, we have justified European exploitation of the “New World,” promoted Manifest Destiny and conquest of the American wilderness (Nash 1982), and instituted apartheid in South Africa (e.g. James Michener’s The Covenant). Interpreting Christian scriptures in these ways has resulted in traditions being (sometimes justifiably) maligned. However, Christianity’s central message does not include exploitation of nature. Rather, nature is deemed good (Genesis 1)[2] , humans were created within and as a part of nature (Gen. 2), and God’s grace is not solely for humans, but is extended to all creation (Romans 8):

God’s grace inheres in nature, too … God’s creations in the world are his
voice, appealing to you and to me not only to join all people of good will
in doing what … we ought to do … one thing especially: to love the world
and care for it to the glory of God. (Sittler 1986)

In short, we are to love and respect the earth and its inhabitants.


RELATIONSHIPS

How are we to relate to nature? The Bible is often used to support unquestioned human domination. Domination theology, at its worst, declares that nature’s value lies only in how it can be used for the benefit of humans. Commonly quoted segments of scripture that supposedly support domination are in the creation stories (Gen. 1 and 2), especially Gen. 1:28 (here, God speaks to the first humans):

God said to them, “Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth and subdue
it; and have dominion over … every living thing that moves upon the earth.”

Thereby suggesting that subdueling and having dominion over the earth and all living things elevate humans to ruling over the earth. This view can justify absolute control over the earth, even to exploiting resources without limits. This can lead to the Church’s ignoring or even supporting environmental degradation (White 1967). However, others stress that dominion does not necessarily mean domination - dominion includes responsible care (Gibbons 1988; Hall 1986).

Admittedly, the creation stories make it clear that humankind is special to God. Humans are the crown of creation (Psalm 8: 4-8). Humans were created last, through the spoken word of God, in the first creation story (Gen. 1), in an orderly account of creation and an affirmation that all creation is good. In the second creation story (Gen. 2: 4-9), God created humans first, in a more “earthy” manner and placed them in a garden (Eden): God is likened to a potter - actively molding life from the clay (Link 1980). These contrasting stories both have merit: the two renditions show humans in relation to all creation. Human dominion in Gen. 1 is balanced by human and Godly earthiness of Gen. 2. God demonstrates faithfulness in caring for and being concerned for all creation: “every green plant” is given to all creatures “for food” (Gen. 1:30). Humans are considered as part of nature. When we are told “to be fruitful and multiply” (Gen. 1:28). God did not intend for us to ignore the rest of Eden.

The Bible is rich in imagery and does not necessarily go overboard to explain the mysteries of God and nature. I believe that the creation stories are not intended to be taken literally. They do not explain how God created the earth, but rather why. Rather than being anthrocentric or ecocentric, the stories are theocentric – they show the creative actions of a loving God. The creation stories introduce us to the relationship between God, humans, and nature. Employing historical-critical methods[3] to study the scriptures is a key to understanding much about scriptural imagery (Link 1980).

Stewardship (caring for property or resources belonging to another) is a concept that is frequently used in how Christians should react to environmental concerns and issues (Ebenezer n.d.; Kruger 1988). Although stewardship is easily grasped and taught, it does not wholly explain how humans are to living within nature. Stewards can remain outside, aloof, to “lord over” the rest of creation. Stewardship is inadequate theology. It does not challenge us to consider our impacts upon the earth or demonstrate how we are to live with nonhuman nature (Merchant 1995).

Presbyterian theologian Richard Cartwright Austin published a series of books on environmental theology that considered Bible-authors’ worldviews and nature imagery. The cornerstone work of his 3 volumes defined biblical ecology, as a covenant relationship involving God, humans and the land (Austin 1988). The basis is the call of Abram and the origins of the Nation of Israel:

Now the Lord said to Abram, “Go from your country and your kindred …
to the land I will show you. I will make of you a great nation and I will
bless you … so that you will be a blessing …. To your offspring I will give
this land.” (Gen. 12: 1-2, 7)

In God’s call to the chosen people, land is part of a promise – a covenant. Austin (1988) believes that God not only promised land as a part of the covenant, Israel was explicitly tied to that land. God, humans and the land were to share in the covenant.

The covenant extended ethical treatment to the land and its inhabitants, nonhuman as well as human. Other species were to be respected and were entitled to a share of the landscape’s bounty. No where is this more eloquently demonstrated than in the traditions of Sabbath (resting: commonly the seventh day or seventh year) and Jubilee (the seventh of seven, or 49, years) (Leviticus 25: 8-10). God’s people and the land were to rest on the seventh day.

On the seventh year, tillable land was to be fallow: the poor (humans) and “wild beasts” were to have access to whatever grew on it. Even during cultivation years, secondary harvests were prohibited. Grain that remained after harvest was to be left in the fields so that animals as well as less fortunate humans could glean the fields.

During Jubilee, a person would return to the land that was originally allotted to his ancestors to start afresh (Austin 1988). Jubilee, along with Sabbath observances and rituals, affirmed that God alone “owns” the land, and that nature is a precious part of the covenant.

Despite the insistence of many western Christians, land and biota are not, scripturally, merely commodities for the good of humans. In the Hebrew tradition, the earth and all that is upon it belongs to God. Even though humans do occupy a special place in creation, with dominion comes responsibility. God’s promise to his people ushered in a special relationship between God, humans and nature (Gen. 12, 17).

Over the years, this sense of covenant relationship has been lost to contemporary Judeo-Christian culture. American religion has evolved toward a primary emphasis on humans and satisfying human needs (Marty 1976). More tragically, religion was used to justify exploitation and to “civilize” land and peoples (Nash 1982; White 1967).


GOOD WORK

The Christian strives for a right relationship with God and other people in all arenas of life. The reformer Martin Luther brought the scriptures and Christian teachings out from the cloisters and seminaries to the common people. He believed that all work was good and blessed by God. Meaningful and honest work is a service to God and his people (Sittler 1988). On the other hand, shoddy or dishonest work is an affront to all (in Lewis 1977: Good Work and Good Works). Work (vocation) can be theology in practice: the greatest statement of Christian work is Christ’s example - to be a servant to others. It follows that work on behalf of the earth and all its inhabitants is an important undertaking, particularly when that work is for the oppressed - those who cannot speak for themselves (whether humans, nonhuman organisms or ecosystems).


LAND MANAGEMENT

Land management is the protection, manipulation, conservation, and restoration of land and biota. It is an unfortunate combination of terms, since management implies control. In reality, land management frequently does not involve control. We usually work with natural forces since we often cannot control or arrest natural processes. Wise and ethical land managers learn that working with or guiding natural processes comes to a better end than attempting to manipulate them.

The Fall: Jews and Christians believe that our imperfect relationship with God and nature resulted from our “fall from grace” at the Garden of Eden: Adam and Eve were tempted, then chose to disobey and rebel against God (Gen. 3). Because of this rebellion, all humans share an imperfect, rebellious and sinful state, and are born into sin:

“sin came into the world through one man, and death spread to all
because all have sinned” (Rom. 5: 12)

When humans rebelled, this “original sin” (Gen. 3) caused a rift in God’s relationship with humans and nature. God’s driving Adam and Eve from the Garden symbolized this break in harmony (God here speaks to the first humans):

“cursed is the ground because of you; in toil you shall eat of it all
the days of your life … until you return to the ground, for out of it you
were taken; you are dust and to dust you shall return.” (Gen. 3: 17b-19)

The Fall not only ended a perfect relationship with the earth, humans were thereafter destined to struggle for existence. Land management is one human attempt to exercise responsibility and care for the land. The land manager is involved daily with the toil of protecting and maintaining the integrity of the land. Abuse of the land is grounded in original sin; whether consciously or not, land managers attempt to counteract the results of sinful human activities.

Land management systems (as they exist today) are commonly single-species or single-program approaches: a preferred game animal or the most popular outdoor recreation activity is selected and emphasized. Unfortunately, favoring one species or activity can compromise or exclude other species, different activities, or ecosystem health. Since all creatures and processes within an ecosystem are interconnected, this can lead to trouble. Christian might find fault with such single-minded management, since scriptures affirm that God appreciates natural diversity: the aforementioned fallow period for wildlife; the creation stories’ proclaiming goodness and abundance of creatures and landscapes; God’s answer to Job, about divine wisdom in nature (Job 38-39). A classic bible story about God’s concern for nature is the Flood Narrative (Gen. 7) - God worried not just about Noah’s family but also for the survival of nonhuman life:
“take with you … animals … to keep their kind alive on the face
of all the earth.” (Gen. 7:3)

Wise Use: the conservation philosophy of wise use was defined early in the 1900s by conservationists such as Gifford Pinchot and nurtured by prevalent multiple-use paradigms in public land and resource management (Sharpe et al 1986). Many contemporary wise-use proponents became organized in reaction to what they perceived as overly strict governmental regulations and in opposition to certain the environmental movements or issues. Wise use has been argued theologically (particularly in American culture) through the “dominion equals domination” and anthrocentric mind-sets (White 1967; Austin 1988). Sincere conservationists have reduced nature to elements that are of value to humankind (resourcism) so that natural resources are the focus of most conservation efforts. Wise use and resourcism often do not take into consideration the intrinsic value of nature and ecosystems (Grumbine 1992).

Ecological management: ecological land management - variously called ecosystem-based management, holistic land management or sustainable resource management - appears to be appropriate to Christian tradition. Biblical references, especially those of the Old Testament, specifically define the link between human welfare and environmental health:

“Alas for you who heap up what is not your own! … Because you have
plundered many nations, all that survive of the peoples shall plunder
you - because of human bloodshed and violence to the earth …
(Habakkuk 2:1-8; italics mine)

In such passages, violence to the earth is expressively tied to human suffering: God’s judgment and wrath is often directed toward those who exploit and wreck havoc upon the natural world:

  • all of God’s creation is good – each organism and process has its intrinsic value (Gen. 1 and 2)
  • all of creation is interconnected and includes human communities within it (I Corinthians 12:12 and Ephesians 4: 15-16 ref. Christian unity)
  • we are to work to “release the captive” and “lift up the oppressed” human or nonhuman (Luke 4: 16-21)
  • the greatest in Christendom is a servant (Mark 9:35); a servant works for the good of all creation
  • Christians are to participate in healing: “Your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven” (Matthew 6:10) 

Can ecological land management bring about a return to Eden – where nature and humans live in the balance? Probably not, since basic human nature is generally contrary to God and the workings of natural systems. Ecologically-sensitive land management is usually not the institutional norm. However, we must strive, through righteous work and lifestyles, to protect and heal the earth.

Healing: Management theology is not control, but healing and nurturing. One fairly new applied science is restoration ecology (Aber and Jordan 1985). Its compatibility with Judeo-Christianity is clear in the recurring theme of God’s healing and restoring acts. The familiar story, The Valley of the Dry Bones (Ezekiel 37)[4] is an illustration that God can bring about renewal. There is hope even in environments of despair. Action on our part is important in renewal – we must take the role of a prophet, speaking out and striving for the good of all creation. Every renewal prophecy in the bible includes not just God, but a prophet.

So healing requires action. We are to work to reverse the impacts of our fallen humanity - refurbish and renew the broken landscape. The original covenant is expanded by Christ (who did as much healing as he did preaching). Christ calls us to participate in Christian servanthood:

“The harvest is plentiful, but the laborers are few; therefore ask the Lord
of the harvest to send out laborers into his harvest” (Matt. 9: 37-38)


SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION: A Theology of Land Management

Conservation ethics, as espoused by Leopold (1966) is supported by and is compatible with Christianity. Scriptures testify that all creation suffers because of sin and awaits Christ’s redemption (Rom. 8). All creation shares God’s unconditional love (grace) (Sittler 1986). God came to earth as a human being, experience life and creation, then suffered, died and arose to redeem not just us, but all creation … Christ’s return will usher in a new heaven and earth, reuniting nature and humans in Edenic harmony.

Thankfully, God does not leave the world to its own devises. Creation is continually renewed through his activities. Those evolutionary and ecological processes operating independent of (and often despite) human culture are evidence of God’s grace and power. God chooses us, and works through us, as we strive to reverse the environmental degradation caused by sinful humanity.

Theology is activity, not just philosophy. Christian philosophy is, as are those of all religions, based upon faith … and faith without works is dead (James 2: 14-26). We must work to protect, restore and replenish ecosystems and species. Applied ecology can be applied theology.


REFERENCES (* recommended reading [5])

Aber, J.D. and W.R. Jordan III 1985. Restoration ecology: An environmental middle ground.
BioScience 25: 414-418.

Anon. 1990. Holy bible (new revised standard version). Augsburg Fortress Press, Minneapolis. 1151 pp.*

Austin, R.C. 1988. Beauty of the Lord: Awakening the senses. Environ. Theol. Book 2. John Knox Press, Atlanta. 225 pp. *

Ebenezer, J.S. (n.d.). Stewardship of creation: A homily on Romans 12:2. Unpubl. pap., World Hunger Program, Evangelical Lutheran Church Amer., Chicago. 3 pp.

Gibbons, D. 1988. Redefining dominion (Review of Hall 1986). The Egg 8(4): 12-13. *

Gould, S.J. 1990. The Golden Rule: A proper scale for our environmental crisis. Natur. History, September: 24-30. *

Grumbine, R.E. 1992. Ghost bears: Exploring the biodiversity crisis. Island Press, Covelo, California. 294 pp. *

Grumbine, R.E. 1994. What is ecosystem management? Conserv. Biol. 8(1): 27-38. *

Hall, D.J. 1986. Imaging God: Dominations as stewardship. W.B. Eerdmans/Friendship Press,
Grand Rapids, Michigan. 248 pp.

Kruger, F. W., ed. 1988. Christian ecology: Building an environmental ethic for the twenty-first century. Proc. First North Amer. Conf. Christianity and Ecology. San Francisco. 139 pp.

Leopold, A. 1966. A sand county almanac, with essays on conservation from Round River.
Ballantine Books, New York. 295 pp. (First publ. in 1949) *

Lewis, C.S. 1977. The joyful Christian. Collier Books, Macmillan Publ. Co., New York. 239 pp. *

Link, M. 1980. These stones will shout: A new voice for the Old Testament. Argus Communications, Allen, Texas. 236 pp. *

Marty, M.E. 1976. A nation of behaviors. Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago. 239 pp.

Merchant, C. 1992. Radical ecology: The search for a liveable world. Routledge, Chapman, and
Hall, New York. 276 pp.

Nash, R. 1982. Wilderness and the American mind (3rd ed.). Yale Univ. Press, New Haven. 425
pp.

Sharpe, G.W. C.W. Hendee and W.F. Sharpe 1986. Introduction to forestry. McGraw-Hill Book
Co., New York. 629 pp.

Sittler, J. 1986. Gravity and grace: Reflections and provocations. Augsburg Publ. House, Minneapolis. 127 pp. *

White, L. Jr. 1967. The historical roots of our ecological crisis. Science 10 March: 1205-1207.*

Wilson, E.O. 1996. Biophilia: The human bond with other species. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge. 157 pp. *

Wilson, E.O. 2006. The Creation: An appeal to save life on Earth. W.W. Norton, New York. 175 pp. *
 

[1] This paper was initially submitted, in much cruder form, as an assignment for Geography 425 (at SIU-Carbondale) to Prof. Leslie Durham (5/2/96), revised (4/19/99) and 5/2002 (for Lutherans Promoting Justice, Marion IL). Review and critique  of this November 2006 version is welcome. Please forward comments to the author at: Andy West ozkoala@localnet.com
 
[2] Biblical references are from the Holy Bible, New Revised Standard Version, 1990. Biblical books are abbreviated after their initial citation.
 
[3] Considering that the ancient writers has an eastern mind-set rather than our western, rational mind-set, as well as the historic events and cultural settings of the writers' times.
 
[4] "...dem bones, dem bones, dem dry bones ..."
 
[5]  I also recommend the excellent publications of the Worldwatch Institute, including their periodic Worldwatch Papers. These deal with a variety of environmental issues that are particularly appropriate for people and communities of faith.

Dr. K. Andrew West
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Bless the Lord, O my soul,
O Lord my God,
how excellent is your greatness!

You wrap yourself with light
as with a cloak
and spread out the heavens like a curtain.

Psalm 104:1-2
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